colonial literatur

1.Colonial literature Owing to the large immigration to Boston in the 1630s, the high articulation of Puritan cultural ideals, and the early establishment of a college and a printing press in Cambridge, the New England colonies have often been regarded as the center of early American literature. However, the first European settlements in North America had been founded elsewhere many years earlier. Towns older than Boston include the Spanish settlements at Saint Augustine and Santa Fe, the Dutch settlements at Albany and New Amsterdam, as well as the English colony of Jamestown in present-day Virginia. During the colonial period, the printing press was active in many areas, from Cambridge and Boston to New York, Philadelphia, and Annapolis. The dominance of the English language was hardly inevitable.[1] The first item printed in Pennsylvania was in German and was the largest book printed in any of the colonies before the American Revolution.[1] Spanish and French had two of the strongest colonial literary traditions in the areas that now comprise the United States, and discussions of early American literature commonly include texts by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and Samuel de Champlain alongside English language texts by Thomas Harriot and John Smith. Moreover, we are now aware of the wealth of oral literary traditions already existing on the continent among the numerous differentNative American groups. Political events, however, would eventually make English the lingua franca for the colonies at large as well as the literary language of choice. For instance, when the English conquered New Amsterdam in 1664, they renamed it New York and changed the administrative language from Dutch to English. From 1696 to 1700, only about 250 separate items were issued from the major printing presses in the American colonies. This is a small number compared to the output of the printers in London at the time. However, printing was established in the American colonies before it was allowed in most of England. In England restrictive laws had long confined printing to four locations: London, York, Oxford, and Cambridge. Because of this, the colonies ventured into the modern world earlier than their provincial English counterparts.[1] Back then, some of the American literature were pamphlets and writings extolling the benefits of the colonies to both a European and colonist audience. Captain John Smith could be considered the first American author with his works: A True Relation of Such Occurrences and Accidents of Noate as Hath Happened in Virginia... (1608) and The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1624). Other writers of this manner included Daniel Denton, Thomas Ashe, William Penn, George Percy, William Strachey, Daniel Coxe, Gabriel Thomas, and John Lawson. The religious disputes that prompted settlement in America were also topics of early writing. A journal written by John Winthrop, The History of New England, discussed the religious foundations of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Edward Winslow also recorded a diary of the first years after the Mayflower's arrival. Other religiously influenced writers included Increase Mather and William Bradford, author of the journal published as a History of Plymouth Plantation, 1620–47. Others like Roger Williams and Nathaniel Ward more fiercely argued state and church separation. And still others, like Thomas Morton, cared little for the church; Morton's The New English Canaan mocked the religious settlers and declared that the Native Americans were actually better people than the British.[2] Puritan poetry was highly religious in nature, and one of the earliest books of poetry published was the Bay Psalm Book, a set of translations of the biblical Psalms; however, the translators' intention was not to create great literature but to create hymns that could be used in worship.[2] Among lyric poets, the most important figures are Anne Bradstreet, who wrote personal poems about her family and homelife; pastor Edward Taylor, whose best poems, the Preparatory Meditations, were written to help him prepare for leading worship; and Michael Wigglesworth, whose best-selling poem, The Day of Doom, describes the time of judgment. Nicholas Noyes was also known for his doggerel verse. Other late writings described conflicts and interaction with the Indians, as seen in writings by Daniel Gookin, Alexander Whitaker, John Mason, Benjamin Church, and Mary Rowlandson. John Eliot translated the Bible into the Algonquin language. Of the second generation of New England settlers, Cotton Mather stands out as a theologian and historian, who wrote the history of the colonies with a view to God's activity in their midst and to connecting the Puritan leaders with the great heroes of the Christian faith. His best-known works include the Magnalia Christi Americana, the Wonders of the Invisible World and The Biblia Americana. Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield represented the Great Awakening, a religious revival in the early 18th century that asserted strict Calvinism. Other Puritan and religious writers include Thomas Hooker, Thomas Shepard, John Wise, and Samuel Willard. Less strict and serious writers included Samuel Sewall (who wrote a diary revealing the daily life of the late 17th century),[2] and Sarah Kemble Knight. New England was not the only area in the colonies; southern literature is represented by the diary of William Byrd of Virginia, as well as by The History of the Dividing Line, which detailed the expedition to survey the swamp between Virginia and North Carolina but which also comments on the different lifestyles of the Native Americans and the white settlers in the area.[2] In a similar book, Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West, William Bartram described in great detail the Southern landscape and the Native American peoples whom he encountered; Bartram's book was very popular in Europe, being translated into German, French and Dutch.[2] As the colonies moved towards their break with England, perhaps one of the most important discussions of American culture and identity came from the French immigrant J. Hector St. John de Crèvecœur, whose Letters from an American Farmer addresses the question what is an American by moving between praise for the opportunities and peace offered in the new society and recognition that the solid life of the farmer must rest uneasily between the oppressive aspects of the urban life (with its luxuries built on slavery) and the lawless aspects of the frontier, where the lack of social structures leads to the loss of civilized living.[2] This same period saw the birth of African American literature, through the poetry of Phillis Wheatley and, shortly after the Revolution, the slave narrative of Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano. This era also saw the birth of Native American literature, through the two published works of Samson Occom: A Sermon Preached at the Execution of Moses Paul and a popular hymnbook, Collection of Hymns and Spiritual Songs, "the first Indian best-seller".[3] The revolutionary period also contained political writings, including those by colonists Samuel Adams, Josiah Quincy, John Dickinson, andJoseph Galloway, a loyalist to the crown. Two key figures were Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine. Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanacand The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin are esteemed works with their wit and influence toward the formation of a budding American identity. Paine's pamphlet Common Sense and The American Crisis writings are seen as playing a key role in influencing the political tone of the period. During the revolution itself, poems and songs such as "Yankee Doodle" and "Nathan Hale" were popular. Major satirists included John Trumbull and Francis Hopkinson. Philip Morin Freneau also wrote poems about the war's course. During the 18th century, writing shifted focus from the Puritanical ideals of Winthrop and Bradford to the power of the human mind and rational thought. The belief that human and natural occurrences were messages from God no longer fit with the new human centered world. Many intellectuals believed that the human mind could comprehend the universe through the laws of physics as described by Isaac Newton. The enormous scientific, economic, social, and philosophical, changes of the 18th century, called the Enlightenment, impacted the authority of clergyman and scripture, making way for democratic principles. The increase in population helped account for the greater diversity of opinion in religious and political life as seen in the literature of this time. In 1670, the population of the colonies numbered approximately 111,000. Thirty years later it was more than 250,000. By 1760, it reached 1,600,000.[1] The growth of communities and therefore social life led people to become more interested in the progress of individuals and their shared experience on the colonies. These new ideals are accounted for in the widespread popularity of Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography. 2. Post-independence In the post-war period, Thomas Jefferson's United States Declaration of Independence, his influence on the United States Constitution, his autobiography, the Notes on the State of Virginia, and his many letters solidify his spot as one of the most talented early American writers. The Federalist essays by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay presented a significant historical discussion of American government organization and republican values. Fisher Ames, James Otis, and Patrick Henry are also valued for their political writings and orations. Much of the early literature of the new nation struggled to find a uniquely American voice in existing literary genre, and this tendency was also reflected in novels. European forms and styles were often transferred to new locales and critics often saw them as inferior.

makalah sosiologi komunikasi

PERUBAHAN SOSIAL DAN KOMUNIKASI I. PENDAHULUAN sosiologi komunikasi membahas antara kehidupan sosial dengan salah satu aspek komunikasi yang di pungut dari dunia ilmu pengetahuan yang terkait dengan kemajuan-kemajuan teknis komunikasi memasuki dan menentukan dunia kehidupan sosial dalam suatu masyarakat. Memudarnya masyarakat tradisional akan tampak jelas apabila dilihat dari tiga dimensi perubahan sosial, yaitu: dimensi struktural, dimensi kultural, dan dimensi interaksional. Melihat tiga dimensi perubahan sosial tidak berarti mengabaikan dimensi perubahan lain, seperti dimensi normal dari kehidupan sosial ( karakter pribadi ), peristiwa dan perubahan sosial, perubahan dalam bentuk kualitatif dan kuantitatif, serta perubahan yang direncanakan dan diprogamkan. Dari semua dimensi tersebut tampak ada dalam suatu peristiwa memudarnya masyarakat tradisional. Perubahan stuktur pada masyarakat tradisional merupakan akibat dari derasnya proses modernisasi dengan berbagai nilai atau teknologi yang ditawarkan. Unsur-unsur pentig dalam modernisasi adalah adanya kepribadian yang mobiliitas dan derasnya penyebaran informasi, melalui teknologi media massa yang canggih. II. RUMUSAN MASALAH 1. Interelasi perubahan sosial dan komunikasi 2. Fungsi komunikasi dalam konteks perubahan sosial.

III. PEMBAHASAN 1. Interelasi perubahan sosial dengan komunikasi Perubahan sosial adalah proses sosial yang dialami oleh anggota masyarakat serta semua unsur-unsur budaya dan sistem-sistem sosial, dimana semua tingkat kehidupan masyarakat secara sukarela atau dipengaruhi oleh unsur-unsur eksternal meninggalkan pola-pola kehidupan, budaya dan sistem sosial lama kemudian menyesuaikan diri atau menggunakan pola-pola kehidupan, budaya dan sistem sosial yang baru. Perubahan sosial terjadi ketika ada kesediaan anggota masyarakat untuk meninggalkan unsur-unsur sistem budaya dan sistem sosial lama dan mulai beralih menggunakan unsur-unsur budaya dan sistem sosial yang baru. Perubahan sosial dipandang sebagai konsep yang serba mencakup seluruh kehidupan masyarakat baik pada tingkat individual, kelompok, masyarakat, Negara dan dunia yang mengalami perubahan. Dalam hubungannya dengan proses sosial, komunikasi menjadi sebuah cara dalam melakukan perubahan sosial. Komunikasi berperan menjembatani perbedaan dalam masyarakat karena mampu merekatkan kembali sistem sosial masyarakat dalam usahanya melakukan perubahan. Namun begitu, komunikasi juga tak akan lepas dari konteks sosialnya. Artinya ia akan diwarnai oleh sikap, perilaku, pola, norma, pranata masyarakatnya. Jadi keduanya saling mempengaruhi dan saling melengkapi, seperti halnya hubungan antara manusia dengan masyarakat. Little John (1999), menjelaskan hal ini dalam genre interactionist theories. Dalam teori ini, dijelaskan bahwa memahami kehidupan sosial sebagai proses interaksi. Komunikasi (interaksi) merupakan sarana kita belajar berperilaku. Komunikasi merupakan perekat masyarakat. Masyarakat tidak akan ada tanpa komunikasi. Struktur sosial-struktur sosial diciptakan dan ditopang melalui interaksi. Bahasa yang dipakai dalam komunikasi adalah untuk menciptakan struktur-struktur sosial. Interelasi antara perubahan sosial dengan komunikasi yang pernah diamati oleh Goran Hedebro(1982) sebagai berikut: 1) Teori komunikasi mengandung makna pertukaran pesan. Perubahan dalm masyarakat selalu ada peran dari komunikasi. Komunikasi ada semua pada usaha yang bertujuan kepada kearah perubahan. 2) Walaupun komunikasi hadir dengan tujuan membawa perubahan, tetapi bukan alasan utama dalam perubahan sosial. Hanya saja, komunikasi merupakan salah satu faktor yang menimbulkan perubahan masyarakat. 3) Media yang digunakan dalam komunikasi berperan melegitimasi bangunan sosial yang ada. 4) Komunikasi merupakan alat yang digunakan untuk mengawasi salah satu kekuatan penting masyarakat. Dengan kata lain, mereka berada dalam posisi mengawasi media, dapat menggerakkan pengaruh yang menetukan menuju arah perubahan sosial. 2. Fungsi komunikasi dalam konteks perubahan sosial Fungsi komunikasi dalam sosial setidaknya mengisyaratkan bahwa komunikasi itu penting untuk membangun konsep diri kita, aktualisasi diri, untuk kelangsungan hidup, untuk memperoleh kebahagiaan, terhindar dari tekanan dan ketegangan. Antara lain lewat komunikasi yang bersifat menghibur, dan memupuk hubungan dengan orang lain. Melalui komunikasi kita bekerja sama dengan anggota masyarakat ( keluarga, kelompok belajar, perguruan tinggi, RT, RW, desa, kota dan Negara secara keseluruhan ). Inkeles dan Smith dalam Jahi, Amri ( 1998 ) berpendapat bahwa komunikasi massa, dan industrialisasi merupakan beberapa cara sosialisasi yang paling penting. Berkaitan dengan ini terdapat beberapa peran komunikasi dalam modernisasi yaitu : a. Komunikasi persuasif Komunikasi persuasif akan mempengaruhi perubahan nilai-nilai, sikap mental, perilaku, kepribadian yang kreatif, motivasi untuk berprestasi yang sangat mendukung terwujudnya modernisasi. Komunikasi persuasive akan mempengaruhi nilai budaya untuk berorientasi ke masa depan, sehingga setiap individu akan mempunyai motivasi untuk berkarya, berinovasi, bersikap hemat untuk menabung, disiplin dan sangat berperan dalam modernisasi. Komunikasi persuasif akan mempengaruhi masyarakat untuk berpartisipasi dalam proyek pembangunan. Sebagai contoh proyek penghijauan, perbaikan jalan desa, dsb. b. Komunikasi interaktif Komunikasi interaktif dalam bidang pendidikan formal dan non formal sangat perberan dalam meningkatkan sumber daya manusia untuk berkarya, disiplin, bertanggung jawab, berprestasi dan berkualitas merupakan faktor yang sangat penting dalam modernisasi. Demikian pula komunikasi interaktif dalam pengasuhan di rumah tangga sangat menentukan keberhasilan generasi penerus dalam melaksakan progam –progam pembangunan. Sebagai contoh: melalui bacaan cerita anak-anak yang berorientasi “ nach ”, yang biasanya di baca waktu di luar sekolah. c. Komunikasi melalui media massa Komunikasi melalui media massa sangat berperan dalam meningkatkan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi dalam masyarakat untuk terwujudnya modernisasi. Komunikasi persuasif akan mempengaruhi para petani produsen untuk meningkatkan usaha taninya kearah agribisnis dan agrobisnis sehingga subtitusi impor meningkat, hal tersebut harus disertai pula kebijakan yang menguntungkan bagi petani sebagai perangsang untuk berproduksi, dengan demikian sangat mendukung dalam modernisasi. Peranan komunikasi tersebut diharapkan akan menimbulkan perubahan yang menguntungkan di berbagai bidang kehidupan, demografi, stratifikasi, pemerintahan, pendidikan, system keluarga, nilai, sikap serta kepribadian yang sangat penting bagi proses modernisasi di Indonesia. IV. KESIMPULAN Perubahan sosial adalah proses sosial yang dialami oleh anggota masyarakat serta semua unsur-unsur budaya dan sistem-sistem sosial, dimana semua tingkat kehidupan masyarakat secara sukarela atau dipengaruhi oleh unsur-unsur eksternal meninggalkan pola-pola kehidupan, budaya dan sistem sosial lama kemudian menyesuaikan diri atau menggunakan pola-pola kehidupan, budaya dan sistem sosial yang baru. Interelasi perubahan sosial dengan komunikasi yaitu Teori komunikasi mengandung makna pertukaran pesa, komunikasi merupakan salah satu faktor yang menimbulkan perubahan masyarakat, Media yang digunakan dalam komunikasi berperan melegitimasi bangunan sosial yang ada, serta Komunikasi merupakan alat yang digunakan untuk mengawasi salah satu kekuatan penting masyarakat. Fungsi komunikasi dalam perubahan sosial terdapat beberapa peran antara lain komunikasi persuasif, komunikasi interaktif serta komunikasi melalui media massa. V. PENUTUP Demikianlah makalah ini yang dapat penulis sampaikan. Semoga apa yang telah penulis lakukan ini nantinya akan menjadi sebuah amal ibadah. Amin. Penulis menyadari bahwasannya dalam penulisan makalah ini masih jauh dari kesempurnaan. Oleh karena itu, mohon kritik dan sarannya dari pembaca yang bersifat membangun demi kesempurnaan makalah kami selanjutnya. Thanks. DFTAR PUSTAKA Deddy mulyana, M.A, Ph.D. Iilmu komunikasi suatu pengantar. Bandung: PT Remaja Rosdakarya Offset. 2005. Hal 5 http://hubungan komunikasi dengan sosial. 6 oktober 2012. 10.00 WIB http://peran komunikasi dalam modernisasi.06 oktober 2012. 10:30 wib M. Munandar Soelaman, Dinamika Masyarakat Transisi. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar,1998 Nurudin. Sistem komunikasi Indonesia. Jakarta: rajawali pers, 2005. Cet II, hal.45-47 Prof. DR.H.M. Burhan Bungin, S. SOS.,M.SI. Sosiologi Komunikasi Jakarta:Kencana, 2008. cet. III, Hal.91